1. Quotations:

The following are examples of quoting original texts published in other authors’ work:

1）     The audiolingual approach to language learning is summed up succinctly by Alexander (1968) : “Listen before you speak, speak before you read, read before you write.”

2）     Fermando Pessoa sought to resolve the tensions in his personality by breaking his poetic self down into four different authors. In adopting such a path, he was clearly echoing Keats’s famous observation that ‘the poetic character … is not itself – it has no self … A poet is the most unpoetical of anything in existence; because he has no Identity – he is continually informing and filling some other Body …’ (1895)

3）     Leftwich’s resource allocation definition of politics is somewhat broader than a power conception, so it may be more vulnerable to the criticism that it collapses the distinction between the political and the social. His original formulation of that definition was:

Politics consists of all the activities of co-operation and conflict, within and between societies, whereby the human species goes about obtaining, using producing and distributing resources in the course of the production and reproduction of its social and biological life. (Leftwich, 1985)

When you are using a direct quotation or a single phrase or sentence, double quotation marks should be used around the words, which must be quoted exactly as they appear in the original. However, as in Example 2), when you wish to omit some of the author’s original words which are not relevant to your writing, three dots can be used to indicate where you have omitted words. If the material quoted already contain a quotation, it is necessary to change the single quotation marks in the original to double quotation marks to indicate that these were the author’s quotation marks and not yours. Apart from the changes in quotation marks mentioned above, you should reproduce exactly the punctuation and spelling of the original. Longer quotations, of more than three lines, should be indented as a separate paragraph with no quotation marks as in Example 3).

Full details of sources and authors mentioned should be given in the bibliography.

2. Paraphrase:

The following are examples of paraphrases:

1) Paraphrases by reporting:

l          Brown (1983: 231) claims that the communicative way of teaching is a far more effective approach in ELT.

l          Quoting Bott (1977), Milroy (1980: 135) points out that ….

Brown is the surname of the author, and the information in brackets refers to the year and page number of the publication quoted, details of which should be presented in the bibliography at the end of the essay. It is useful but not essential to give page numbers. You need to check with the department you are studying at about its conventions. A problem sometimes arises when an author (A) mentions the interesting work of another writer (B) but the book or article by B is unobtainable. Then it can be written like the second example.

2) Paraphrases by referencing:

l          A previous report (Blake, 1977) indicates the importance of such prior knowledge.

l          Several researchers have testified to the limitations of this method (Koo, 1985; Manson, 1961; Watkins, 1979)

l          The students may confuse the object-relative pattern with the subject-relative pattern (Abbott, 1969, quoted in Ponsonby 1990:36)

References are similar to reporting except that in references the authors’ names are given in brackets only and are not referred to directly in the text. Again, full details of the work of authors mentioned should be given in the bibliography. If several authors’ names are included in the brackets, you should arrange them according to either the alphabetic order of the authors’ names or the years of their publications.  The format of references should adhere to standard APA style, which is described in many books on thesis writing.

Full details of the sources and authors mentioned should be given in the bibliography.

3. Bibliography

1) References to books

The following information should be given for each book:

a)        Author: Deng Yanchang & Liu Runqing

b)       Book Title: Language and Culture

c)        Date of Publication: 1991

d)       Publisher: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press

e)        Place of Publication: Beijing

In the bibliography, the information should appear as in the following example:

Deng, Y.C. & R.Q. Liu. (1991). Language and Culture.  Beijing: Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press.

Pay special attention to the punctuation used.  The title of the book should be in italics.  The details should conform to the conventions of APA style.

2) References to articles in collection of articles

The following information should be given for each article:

a)          Author of the Article: Robert G. Hanvey

b)         Title of the Article: Cross-cultural Awareness

c)          Date: 1979

d)         Title of the Book: Selective Reading in Intercultural Communication

e)          Editor of the Book: Hu Wenzhong

f)          Date of Publication: 1990

g)         Publisher: Hu Nan Education Press

h)         Place of Publication: Hu Nan

The bibliography should appear as in the following example:

Hanvey, R.G. (1979). Cross-cultural Awareness.  In Hu, W.Z. (Ed.), Selective Reading in Intercultural Communication (1990).  Hu Nan: Hu Nan Education Press.

The title of the book in which the article was found should be in italics.  Complete information about the book containing the selected work should also appear.

3) References to articles in journals

The following information should be given for each article in a journal:

a)        Author of the Article: Lambert Richard West

b)       Title of the Article: Approaches to Cultural Teaching

c)        Date: 1995

d)       Pages: 283-299

e)        Name of the Journal: Journal of Social Issues

f)        Volume of the Journal: 23

g)       Number of the Journal: 2

In the bibliography, the information should appear as in the following example:

West, R.L. (1996).  Approaches to Cultural Teaching.  In the Journal of Social Issues 23/2:283-299.

The title of the article from a journal should separated from the rest of the text with a period. You must include a bibliography or list of references at the end of every piece of academic writing. Whatever format for a bibliography you choose to follow, consistency is the most important thing.  For this reason, we have selected “APA style” as the standard that you should follow.  If you list only works that you have referred to in your essay, you should entitle your list “References”. The title “Bibliography” is used when, in addition to sources cited in your essay, you also include background reading that you have not cited.  Usually, entries are arranged according to the alphabetical order of the authors’ surname.  Look at the example of a short bibliography below to see how the entire list should appear.  For details regarding how to format other types of entries, you may consult any book on thesis writing that discusses APA style or refer to one of the many articles on this topic on the internet.

4. A sample bibliography

Note that entries should be arranged in alphabetical order.

Ager, D., Musken, G. & S. Wright. (Eds). (1993). Language Education for Intercultural Communication.  Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

Anderson, J. (1993).  Is a communicative approach practical for teaching in China? Pros & cons. In System 21/4: 471-480.

Barro, A., Byram, M. & H. Grimm. (1993). Cultural studies for advanced language learners. In Graddol et al (Eds.), Intercultural Monthly (pp. 55-70).

Canale, M. & M. Swain. (1980). Theoretical bases of communicative approaches to second language teaching and testing. In Applied Linguistics 1/1 (pp. 1-47).

Cao, Xudong. (1993). Designing An In-Service Methodology Course For Chinese University English Teachers. Unpublished M.Ed. Thesis: CELSE in the University of Manchester.

Graddol, D. & L. Thompson & M. Byram (Eds.). (1993).  Language and Culture.  Clevedon: Multilingual Matters.

杜琼英 （2000） 现代远程开放教育学习支持服务系统设计模式研究.《中国远程教育》. 2000/9：15-18.